Popular History in Victorian Magazines Database (PHVM)

Periodicals were an essential part of, and reflected all aspects of Victorian culture, including the Victorians' interest in the past. This database derives from a project on popular presentations of history in Victorian magazines:

"Histories for the Many: Historical Lifeworlds in Victorian Family, Women's and Children's Periodicals" – "Geschichte(n) für viele: Historische Lebenswelten in Familien-, Frauen- und Kinderzeitschriften des viktorianischen England" (KO 1195/15-1) in the context of the Research Group DFG FOR 875 "History in Popular Cultures of Knowledge" – "Historische Lebenswelten in populären Wissenskulturen der Gegenwart". Researchers: Prof. Dr. Barbara Korte, Doris Lechner, MA. The entries for the database were compiled by the following research assistants: Christiane Hadamitzky, Katja Bay, Sita Kattanek, Sotirios-Kimon Mouzakis, Ines Bachor and Natalie Churn. We should like to thank the Freiburg University Library for hosting the database and are especially grateful to Martin Helfer for the online realisation of our data.

The database [1] presents results from a content analysis of five Victorian magazines from different sectors of the periodicals market – All the Year Round, The Leisure Hour, The Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine, The Ladies' Treasury, and The Boy's Own Magazine – for the period 1860-1870.[2] It makes visible some of their common trends and significant differences. It thus indicates that mid-Victorian popular historical culture was marked by both mainstream interests and significant internal diversification.

Backgrounds

Billie Melman defines English historical culture as "the productions of segments of the past, or rather pasts, the multiplicity of their representations, and the myriad ways in which the English – as individuals and in groups – looked at this past (sometimes in the most literal sense of 'looking') and made use of it, or did not, both in a social and material world and in their imaginary" (4). Research on Victorian historical culture has established to what extent the Victorians, living in an age they considered modern and progressive, were immersed in but also reflected on the past and its relationship to the present. Stephen Bann speaks of the "generosity of the nineteenth-century Clio" and points out a "wide variety of representational forms which were utilised throughout this period to express a new vision of the past" (1-2). Since around 1800, historical culture showed a markedly 'popular' orientation: It was increasingly addressed to widening readerships that reached across sexes, classes and generations, and it was presented to such audiences in accessible and appealing manners. Rosemary Mitchell has suggested that "a sense of loss and discontinuity with the past fed a historical curiosity unprecedented in the history of the Western world", to which "such cataclysmic political events as the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and such more gradual changes as the emergence of a consumer society and the beginnings of industrialization clearly contributed" (2). If the Romantics 'discovered' history, the Victorians were immersed in it. Leslie Howsam points out that "[i]n the mid- and late Victorian decades, British people began to learn about the past from a remarkably young age and throughout their lives" (55). They came across history in diverse media and practices such as historical painting, stage plays, museums and exhibitions, panoramas and dioramas, sightseeing and, of course, the wide range of products on a rapidly expanding and diversifying print market.

The Victorian print market offered authoritative historiography such as Macaulay's History of England (1849 and 1855) as well as publications for mass education such as Charles Knight's Pictorial History of England (1837-39), which, like his later Popular History of England (1856-62), was originally published in collectable issues. Historical novels were popular with readers of different tastes, and many such novels were serialised in periodicals.

The various ways in which periodicals contributed to the dissemination of historical knowledge have received comparatively little attention to date, although periodicals are "best adapted for the needs of a mass audience. They can be produced and sold much more cheaply than books. They appeal to the millions of men and women who consider the reading of a whole book too formidable a task even to be attempted" (Altick 318). As early as 1859, the critic E. S. Dallas noted in his article "Popular Literature – the Periodical Press" in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine (vol. 85, January/February): "The rise of the periodical press is the great event of modern history. [...] A periodical differs from a book in being calculated for rapid sale and for immediate effect. [...] It is necessary, therefore, to the success of a periodical, that it should attain an instant popularity – in other words, that it should be calculated for the appreciation, not of a few, but of the many. Periodical literature is essentially a popular literature" (qtd. from King and Plunkett 418‑419).

Periodicals are therefore an important source for the study of Victorian popular history: To succeed on an increasingly competitive market, they had to be sensitive to the interests, desires and expectations of readers, and they had to present their material accessibly, attractively and entertainingly. What makes the magazine, as a specific form of periodical, a particularly rewarding object of the study of historical culture is its defining heterogeneity (Beetham, 1): There is considerable variety between the agendas of individual magazines. Each weekly or monthly issue of a magazine also includes contributions by different writers on different themes and in different genres. Magazines thus highlight how historical culture not only has many different elements, but is also characterised by contrasting angles, contested positions and even contradictions. A look at magazines during the second half of the nineteenth century reveals a wide panorama of how and with what biases the Victorians viewed and made sense of their past.

The readers of the Victorian periodical press came from different backgrounds. The majority belonged to the layers of the middle classes, but interests of the upper and working classes and of intellectual elites were served as well, as were a wide range of special interests of specific groups. Consideration of such varied readerships and interests resulted in a wide stylistic and ideological range of periodicals, which reflected the diversity not only of targeted audiences but also of owners and editors. This diversity also reveals itself in the ways in which the periodicals engaged with (popular) history.

The Database

With a total of 1102 entries, the database is restricted to five magazines and a period of ten years from 1860 to 1870, a decade by which the Victorian periodicals market was firmly established. Following usual practice in periodicals research, analysis of the magazines was conducted in five-year steps and based on volumes of each magazine from the years 1860, 1865 and 1870, accessed online via ProQuest's British Periodicals Collection and Gale Cengage's 19th Century UK Periodicals. The contents of an annual volume may not be entirely representative of a periodical over a longer stretch of time. The fact, for instance, that a magazine serialised a specific historical novel for months or featured a long series about a specific aspect of history biases the statistics for a given year. Nevertheless, when three volumes published over a stretch of ten years are viewed together, some more stable trends for historical culture during the 1860s emerge.

The five magazines selected for the database were among the most visible of their time. They aimed at a non-specialist, 'general' readership.

All the Year Round and The Leisure Hour were so-called family magazines: They targeted a cross-gender and cross-generational audience. Both publications had a considerable circulation and covered similar thematic ground, while they differed in ideological outlook.

All the Year Round (1859-1895; 323 entries in database), a weekly publication which never went below an impressive hundred thousand copies per week, was the continuation of Charles Dickens's Household Words (1850-1859) from 1859 and shared with it a secular outlook that reflected Dickens's interest in social reform. Its price of 2d per weekly issue ensured that it was not out of reach for readers of the labouring classes, but its main audience was recruited from the middle classes, and it was their attitudes, values, fears and sentiments to which AYR was targeted to appeal. Dickens died in 1870 and until then understood himself as the "conductor" of the magazine, in full control of its contents.

The Leisure Hour (1852-1905; 413 entries in database), "A Family Journal of Instruction and Recreation", as it was subtitled until 1876, had the Religious Tract Society behind it. Designed as a penny weekly to compete with other popular magazines such as the Family Herald (1842-1940) and the London Journal (1845-1928), it followed a more openly religious course; its editor during the 1860s was James Macauley.

Women's magazines became increasingly important during the second half of the nineteenth century, when middle- rather than upper-class readers became their main clientele and when the early bourgeois women's movement began to make itself heard in Victorian society. The database includes two leading magazines that addressed the special interests of middle-class women: from fashion, needlework and the household to the arts.

The Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine (1852-79; 64 entries in database), edited by Samuel Beeton and Isabella Beeton (until her death in 1865) was a successful monthly at the price of 6d from its second series in 1860. Its main readership consisted of middle-class women "who employed servants" (Beetham, 63) and who would be interested in practical information on household matters as well as the pleasures of fashion and (suitable) entertainments. The EDM defined femininity in terms of prevailing ideals of domestic femininity, but it was also committed to women's rights and so "allowed very different models of femininity to co-exist on its pages" (Beetham, 61).

The Ladies' Treasury (1858-1895; 116 entries in database, i.e. 94 entries for Ladies' Treasury and 22 entries for its supplement, The Treasury of Literature) cost 7d per monthly issue. It was evangelical in orientation and more conservative than the EDM. Its subtitle proclaimed it to be an "Illustrated Magazine of Entertaining Literature, Education, Fine Art, Domestic Economy, Needlework, and Fashion". It was less practically minded than the EDM as far as certain "domestic" matters were concerned. Nevertheless, the Dictionary of Nineteenth Century Journalism states that it is "generally portrayed as the chief rival of Samuel and Isabella Beeton's Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine, aimed at the same audience, addressing similar subjects and sold at an equally cheap price".

While periodicals for children had their heyday in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, subsequent to the 1870s reform of education, there were successful earlier publications for children such as the Boy's Own Magazine (1855-1874; 186 entries in database), another Beeton publication. It was run as a monthly from 1855 to 1869, when it began to be conducted as a weekly until 1874 (due to this change in publication format, the two volumes for 1870 provided in the Gale Cengage database overlap during September 1870 so that our database compiles two sets of entries for this month, many of which were reprints from the 1863/64 volumes). Its price rose from 2 pence to 6 pence from 1863 which indicates the mainly middle-class readership of the magazine. The magazine aimed to inform its young readers, but also to shape them according to dominant values of Victorian society.

The database lists all fictional and factual pieces from the sample volumes which take a significant interest in 'history'. Where the present ends and 'history' begins is notoriously difficult to determine. For practical reasons, only such pieces were included in the database in which references to the past lie at least three years before the date of publication.

The database entry for each item first provides the following core bibliographical data:

• issue of periodical
• title and subtitle of article
• page numbers
• author (where named and as named).

Categorisation according to genre, the choice of which prefigures and shapes the presentation of history in significant ways, distinguishes between:

• essays (with special categories for travel and topographical writing, which was generally popular with Victorian readers, and review essays, which in some periodicals introduced and directed readers to book publications with a historical focus).
• life writing: biography, obituary and anecdote (i.e. narratives of a special incident from a person's life)
• poetry as well as fiction: serialised novel and fictional tale
• historiography: pieces in which historical content is presented with a more systematic approach (giving precise dates, names etc.) and/or openly didactic intent.

Categorisation according to period identifies the major historical time frame(s) to which a piece refers:

• pre-history
• antiquity (classical and biblical)
• middle ages
• early modern (Tudor to Restoration)
• 18th century
• 19th century.

Categorisation according to space distinguishes between

• English/British history
• colonial history and history of colonisation
• Continental history
• United States
• history occurring in other parts of the world (such as non-colonial Asia).

Type of history is a category with special importance for investigations of popular history because the range of popular history in this respect is considerably wider than the scholarly interest in history. The database distinguishes between:

• political and military history
• national history
• religious and ecclesiastical history
• history of discovery and colonisation
• history of civilisation
• natural history and the history of science and technology
• social history, with special subcategories for the history of everyday life, as well as gender and class history
• cultural history, with special subcategories for the history of the arts, the history of customs and traditions as well as one for fashion and design and the history of food and nutrition.

These categories are marked when a piece shows an explicit interest in that kind of history. It should be noted, however, that the historical interest of periodicals is also implicitly gendered: women's magazines take a special interest in the history of women and the history of female lifeworlds, while a boy's magazine has a distinctly masculine orientation, and family magazines typically offer articles whose interests are gendered for either female or male readers.

Relation to history is a more loosely defined category that identifies a notable tendency in many articles to highlight ways in which people can relate to history, or a special relevance of history to people's lives. Some articles describe historical activities which readers can perform themselves or watch in their environment: reading books about history or "Old News Sheets" (EDM 1870), visiting a museum, a historical sight or an archaeological dig, or walking through their city with a historian's eye. Other articles note the topicality of a historical theme, that is, its relevance for the present, i.e. they construct a 'bridge' between a historical world and the reader's lifeworld, a tendency that generally distinguishes popular representations of history, which often also includes approaches to historical memory via either personal reminiscence or acts of commemoration. Meta-historical comments can provide another such bridge, for instance when they point out the relevance of the study of history, or how certain branches of history, such as women's history, have been neglected.

Each entry finally provides key words for an article's historical content, as well as a more extensive description of this content (under commentary). It also notes whether articles were illustrated or not, since in some magazines illustrations provide additional visual explanation and pleasure. Whether articles were part of a series or not is also marked. This is significant because series can pursue a historical theme in more depth than individual articles, make this theme more visible and/or explore it in a longue dureé that may extend up to the reader's present.

The database is searchable for all these categories, and its contents and commentary sections can be searched for specific historical figures and events. It is quite obvious, for instance, to what extent the Victorians were still occupied with the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. But Victorian historical culture is also characterised by trends that emerge when one examines tendencies for certain categories.

Overall Trends for Categories

Genre

The genre most frequently used to present historical content in the two family magazines and the women's magazines is the essay. The essay's dominant role can be explained by its flexibility, which suits the purposes of popular representation: It permits many ways in which to present history, from the serious to the humorous, and it can easily be mixed with other attractive genres such as anecdotes or poems. The frequency of the essay in the genre category is even more conspicuous when one adds the figures for travel or topographical articles. In an age of expanding tourism, the Victorians enjoyed reading about travel and places to visit, and very often this was an opportunity to also include historical information related to countries and places.

The explicitly historiographical essay, however, is conspicuously rare both in the two family magazines and in the Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine. This scarcity points to a tendency in these general-interest magazines to present knowledge indirectly rather than in openly instructive forms. The Boy's Own Magazine features a slightly higher amount of direct historiography, as does the Ladies' Treasury in comparison to the EDM. In both instances, this is explained by an intention to educate children, because the Treasury included a significant number of articles intended for the mother's home instruction of her children, and most of its historiographical articles fall into this kind of category, especially series such as "Ancient Memories of an Old Chronicler" (1865) or "An Hour with Mamma" (1860).

Far more frequently, historical content was presented in biographical articles through which history could be personalised, a function which anecdotes could also fulfil, adding a personal and human touch even to political and military history. Biographical articles are also important, however, because they can present history in the form of precepts which readers can follow or at least admire.

The most lively and colourful way to present history was through fiction. It appears in the magazines in the form of serialised novels as well as single- or two-part tales, but was never as dominant as non-fictional presentation. However, fiction is especially attractive for presenting history to children, and The Boy's Own Magazine makes significant use of adventure narratives set in historical periods. Women's magazines for the years examined published hardly any historical fiction; this may be a coincidence since one finds historical fiction in other years of the same magazines. It could also be, however, that women preferred to read fiction set in the present, such as the fashionable sensation novels, and consumed history primarily through other genres.

Poetry with historical themes occurs in all kinds of magazines, but it seems to have been considered especially as another attractive way of presenting history to children, not only because of its emotional approach to history and its additional 'musical' pleasures, but also because poems are easily memorised and thus form a particularly effective way of presenting history as a model for the young reader's behaviour (see the series of "poems of action" in the Boy's Own Magazine in 1860).

Period

The family magazines show a clear peak of entries for the nineteenth and the eighteenth centuries, i.e. the immediate past still within personal memory or at least the communicative memory (Assmann) of parents and grandparents. These were periods to which readers might still feel connected. Not surprisingly, many entries for the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century are concerned with the French Revolution, the Revolutionary Wars and later the Napoleonic Wars, which had impressed themselves deeply on British politics and public opinion. The women's magazines also show great interest in the eighteenth century, but less for political reasons than because of the great number of remarkable women – especially female intellectuals and politically engaged women – to be found in the Enlightenment and during the French Revolution.

The family magazines have the highest share of cross-period articles. Such articles often establish links between past and present, and they can also develop a favourite cultural theme of Victorian times: the progress of civilisation.

In terms of proportion, the women's magazines and the Boy's Own Magazine have a higher share of entries for the middle ages and early modern period than the family magazines. In the case of a periodical for boys, this is explained by boys' interest in a heroic past of knights and explorers, which was also satisfied by some articles for boys in the Ladies' Treasury. What explains the women's magazines' interest in the middle ages and early modern period best, however, is their special concern with the history of women. Like the Enlightenment, the middle ages and early modern period provided evidence of a tradition of educated and sometimes powerful women, i.e. a less domestically-oriented female life than that of the Victorian middle-class reader.

Space

In all magazines, the space of history is close to home: The majority of entries are concerned with England or Britain, but Continental history is of almost equal interest, both in the fields of military/political history and cultural history. As far as the history of the colonies and colonisation is concerned, the women's magazines show less interest than the family magazines, perhaps because this history was primarily conceived in military and political rather than 'domestic' terms. (Significantly, an article in the EDM in 1865 in this rubric is concerned with a female convict ship bound for Australia). The family magazines and the Boy's Own Magazine also show greater interest in the history of the world abroad. The relatively prominent role of American history is explained by topical interests of the time connected with the American Civil War and a more general interest in the US as a social and political experiment.

Types of history

Political and military history is a traditional area of scholarly interest, but it is also well represented in the popular family magazines and, especially in the case of military history, in the Boy's Own Magazine. The women's magazines show proportionally less interest here and so implicitly gender political and military history as a masculine preserve. (Once more, the Ladies' Treasury's educational articles are an exception). An essay in the Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine written on the occasion of a new edition of Julius Caesar's autobiography ("History of Julius Caesar", April 1865, 124-5) is telling in this respect when it claims regarding its female readers: "We are inclined to 'dip' into it here and there rather as a quiet Englishwoman than as a learned critic. We don't wear blue stockings; we skip all the two hundred pages of introduction; we have nothing to say about the coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians, and Hernici; we stand aloof from the belligerents in all the Punic wars, and wait for Caesar. We will not trouble ourselves, for the present, about his achievement, nor an explanation of his conduct, but rest contented with knowing a little about himself" (124). Despite its self-irony, this remark is an apt characterisation of the magazine's treatment of political and military history.

The women's magazines also have a lower share of natural history and the history of the sciences and technology (again with more articles in Treasury because of its concern with children's education) as well as of the history of discovery and colonisation.

The family magazines have a relatively high proportion of articles on the history of the arts, as do the women's magazines, and the same goes for fashion and design (which predictably seems to have been of relatively little interest to boys).

The most striking result for the family and women's magazines is their high amount of social and cultural history. The history of everyday life is a key area of popular history in general, and Victorian magazines in this respect anticipate a trend also found in today's historical production. It is an attractive area of history also because it is colourful and varied; the family magazines in the sample include articles, for instance, on the history of all kinds of objects and institutions. As the commentaries reveal, everyday history is also a strongly gendered area of history: While women's magazines put emphasis on the history of the female lifeworld such as the household, fashion and needlework, articles for men and boys focus on such topics as shaving or the history of weapons.

All magazines for adult readers betray a certain interest in the history of gender and class, but the women's magazines are distinguished by their strong interest in women and their history. They demanded that this history be retrieved from oblivion, and they contributed to this retrieval themselves, for instance by sketching the lives of important women in the past. The Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine in particular supported the women's cause and with some consistency celebrated the cultural and political impact of women in earlier periods.

How to cite this database: Korte, Barbara and Doris Lechner. Popular History in Victorian Magazines Database. University Library at University of Freiburg, 2014. Web. Date of access. doi:10.6094/UNIFR/2014/1.

Works Cited

Altick, Richard D. The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800-1900. 2nd ed. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998.
Assmann, Jan. "Communicative and Cultural Memory." Cultural Memory Studies: An Interdisciplinary Handbook, eds. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008. 109-118.
Bann, Stephen. The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Beetham, Margaret. A Magazine of Her Own? Domesticity and Desire in the Woman's Magazine, 1800-1914. London: Routledge, 1996.
Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism in Great Britain and Ireland, ed. Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor. Gent: Academic Press, 2009.
Howsam, Leslie. "Growing Up with History in the Victorian Periodical Press." Popular History Now and Then, eds. Barbara Korte and Sylvia Paletschek. Bielefeld: transcript, 2012. 55-71.
King, Andrew and John Plunkett (eds.). Popular Print Media, 1820‑1900, 3 vols, London: Routledge, 2004.
Melman, Billie. The Culture of History: English Uses of the Past 1800-1953. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Mitchell, Rosemary. Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 1830-1870. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000.

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Overview of Categories and Subcategories

Please note that multiple selections from a category may apply to a single article.

Genre

category	subcategory
essay
travel writing / topography
review
life writing	biography
	obituary
	anecdote
fiction	serialised novel
	tale
historiography
poetry
other

Period

category
prehistory
antiquity
Middle Ages
early modern
18th century
19th century
cross-period

Space

category
English / British
Continental Europe
United States
colonial
city
country
other

Type of History

category	subcategory
political and military history
religious and ecclesiastical history
natural history / science / technology
cultural history	history of the arts
	history of fashion and design
	history of customs and traditions
	history of food and nutrition
social history	everyday history
	class history
	gender history
history of civilisation
history of discovery and colonialisation
other

Relation to History

category	subcategory
reference to present
topicality
meta-historical reflection
historical activity	historical sights and sightseeing
	collecting
	reading history
	museum visit
	archaeological dig
	antiquarian
memory	personal reminiscence / memoir
	commemoration
other

Content Keywords

'Three Glorious Days' (2)

"A Sermon Against Glory" by Mark Akenside (1)

"An Ode in Imitation of Alcaeus" (1781) by Sir William Jones (1)

"Antona's Banks" (1797) by anon. (1)

"Auld Lang Syne" (1)

"Ballad of Agincourt" (1605) by Michael Drayton (1)

"Battle of the Baltic" (1805) by Thomas Campbell (1)

"Bernardo and Alphonso" (1823) by John Gibson Lockhart (1)

"Boadicea" by William Cowper (1)

"Devil of Glenluce" (1654) (1)

"Here's a Health to Them That's Awa'" (1792) by Robert Burns (1)

"How Sleep the Brave" (1746) by William Collins (1)

"How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix" (1832) by Robert Browning (1)

"Inferno" from The Divine Comedy by Dante (1)

"It is Great for Our Country to Die" by James Gates Percival (1)

"Ivry" (1842) by Thomas Babington Macaulay (1)

"Launch of a First-Rate" by Thomas Campbell (1)

"Leonidas" by George Croly (1)

"Lines Suggested by the Statue of Arnold von Winkelried" by Thomas Campbell (1)

"Locksley Hall" (1842) by Alfred Tennyson (1)

"Lord Beichan" (n.d.) (1)

"Lord of the Isles" by Walter Scott (1)

"Lucretius" (1868) by Alfred Tennyson (1)

"Marmion" (1808) by Walter Scott (1)

"Marseillaise" (2)

"Mary Queen of Scots" (1833) by William Wordsworth (1)

"Of Books" (1580) by Michel Montaigne (1)

"On a Bust of Dante" by Thomas William Parsons (1)

"Rhodon and Iris" (1631) by Ralph Knevet (2)

"Song of Praise on the Great Sahara" (n.d.) by Emir Abd-El-Kader (1)

"Song of the Greek Poet" by George Gordon Noel Byron (1)

"The Battlefield" by William Cullen Bryant (1)

"The Birks of Aberfeldie" by Robert Burns (1)

"The Burial of Sir John Moore at Corunna" (1817) by Charles Wolfe (1)

"The Excommunication of the Cid" (1823) by John Gibson Lockhart (1)

"The Fighting Temeraire Tugged to Her Last Berth" (1861) by Gerald Massey (1)

"The Hostile Brothers", legend of (1)

"The Lay of the Last Minstrel" (1805) by Walter Scott (2)

"The Men of 'Forty-Eight" by Gerald Massey (1)

"The Prisoner of Chillon" (1816) by Lord Byron (1)

"The Testimony of Margaret Fox concerning her late Husband George Fox, together with a brief Account of some of his Travels, Sufferings, and Hardships, endured for the Truth's sake" (1694) by Margaret Fox (1)

"To a Mountain Daisy" (1786) by Robert Burns (1)

"To the United States of North America" by Thomas Campbell (1)

"Verses Written with a Pencil over the Chimney-Piece in the Parlour of the Inn at Kenmore, Taymouth" by Robert Burns (1)

"When Banners are Waving" by anon. (1)

"Yankee Doodle" (1)

"Ye Mariners of England" by Thomas Campbell (1)

1848 Revolution (5)

A

A Coruña (Corunna) (2)

A History of Lace (1865) by Fanny Bury Palliser (1)

Abbas, Haly (Ali Ibn Al-Habbas al-Magusi, ?-994) (1)

abbess (1)

Abbey Craig (1)

Abbey of Holyrood (1)

Abbotsford furnaces (1)

Abd-El-Kader ben Mahi Eddin (1808-1883) (1)

abduction (2)

Abdul Khair Khan (1693-1748) (1)

Abercromby, Sir Ralph (1734-1801) (1)

Aborigines (11)

absolution (1)

abuse (1)

accession to the throne (1)

Accoramboni, Vittoria (1557-1585) (4)

act of parliament (1)

adaptation (15)

Adare Abbey (1)

Addison, Joseph (1672-1719) (1)

admiral (4)

adventure (1)

advertising (1)

advocate (1)

aerodynamics (1)

aerolites (1)

Africa (5)

African Americans (1)

Africans (2)

age of reason (1)

Agincourt, Battle of (1415) (3)

agriculture (4)

Ainos [Ainu] (people) (2)

Airy, Sir George Biddell (1801-1892) (2)

Akenside, Mark (1721-1770) (1)

Alaric, Chief of the Visigoths (c.370-410) (1)

Albert Edward of Wales (1841-1910) (2)

Albert III of Saxony (1443-1500) (4)

Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1819-1861) (8)

alchemist (1)

alcohol (5)

Alexander II (Russia, 1818-1881) (1)

Alexander II (Scotland, 1198-1249) (2)

Alexander III (Scotland, 1241-1286) (2)

Alfonso III (Asturías, 848-910) (1)

Alfred, King of the West-Saxons and Anglo-Saxons (848/9-899) (1)

Algeria (3)

Algiers (2)

Alhambra (1)

Ali, Hyder (1720-1782) (1)

Alighieri, Dante (1265-1321) (3)

Alma, Battle of the (1854) (4)

almanac (1)

Alps (8)

Alps, crossing of (1)

Alton Locke (1850) by Charles Kingsely (1)

Amazons (warriors) (1)

Amenophis III (1403-1364 BC) (1)

American Civil War (1861-1865) (5)

American colonies (2)

American Declaration of Independence (2)

American Independence Day (4th of July 1776) (1)

American Society (1870) by G. Makepeace Towle (1)

American War of Independence (1775-1783) (5)

Amiens, Treaty of (1802) (1)

Ampère, Andreé-Marie (1775-1836) (1)

Anacreon (582-485 BC) (1)

Ancient Greece (1)

Ancient Near East (1)

Ancient Rome (4)

Ancient Songs (1791) by Joseph Ritson (1)

Andalusia (24)

André, John (1750-1780) (1)

Andronicus, Lucius Livius (80/260-200 BC) (1)

Anglican Church (1)

Anglo-Chinese War (Second Opium War, 1856-1860) (1)

Anglo-Persian War (1856-1857) (1)

Anglo-Saxon invasion (5th century) (1)

Anglo-Saxons (2)

Anglo-Spanish Wars (4)

animals (4)

Anne of Austria, Queen of France (1601-1666) (1)

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